Effects of winter recreation on mountain goats

Authors(s): N. Varley

Publication: Effects of winter recreation on wildlife of the Greater Yellowstone Area: a literature review and assessment. Report to the Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.

Publisher:

Publication Date: 0000-00-00

Type:

Location:

Abstract: POPULATION STATUS AND TREND Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) were historically distributed in North America in the western coastal ranges from Alaska to northern Washington and in the Rocky Mountains from northern Canada to northern Montana and central Idaho. Through introductions, primarily by state wildlife agencies, their distribution has been successfully expanded into vacant habitats in their historic range, as well as in habitat outside their historic range in the western United States (Johnson 1977, Wigal and Coggins 1982). Mountain goats were introduced into the Greater Yellowstone Area (GYA) by state fish and game agencies in Montana and Idaho for recreational purposes, including hunting (Brandborg 1955, Montana Department of Fish and Game 1976, Hayden 1984, Swenson 1985, Laundr? 1990, Varley 1995). Most introductions took place between 1940 and 1960 and were successful in achieving self-sustaining populations. Many of the founder herds were productive and colonized unoccupied areas, including mountain ranges that did not receive transplants, such as the Gallatin Mountains. Currently mountain goats inhabit most mountain ranges with appreciable alpine habitat in the GYA (see Table 2). The population trend for goats in these areas is generally stable or growing (Swenson 1985, Laundre 1990, Lemke 1996), and most herds sustain a conservative annual harvest. LIFE HISTORY Mountain goats are social animals generally found in small groups (Brandborg 1955, Chadwick 1977), though single individuals are commonly encountered. During most of the year, adult males generally avoid adult females except where centralized resources, such as mineral licks, bring them together. Males court females during the breeding season in November and early December then leave the female group sometime during the winter (Brandborg 1955, Chadwick 1973, Smith 1977, Wigal and Coggins 1982). Mountain goat populations are generally considered to be slow growing and have low productivity (Eastman 1977, Stevens 1983, Chadwick 1983). Goats become sexually mature at the age of 2.5 (these goats give birth at 3) or 3.5 (these goats give birth at 4), depending upon conditions (Houston and Stevens 1988), though productive conditions can, in rare cases, lead to maturity at the age of 1.5 (Stevens 1983). Gestation is about 6 months, and offspring are born in late May or early June. Females most often have one offspring. Though two and even three kids have been documented, it is considered rare and an indication of productive conditions (Lentfer 1955, Foss 1962, Hayden 1984, Houston and Stevens 1988, Festa-Bianchet et al. 1994, Varley 1995). Mountain goat kids often remain with their mothers for 10?11 months, or longer if the mother does not produce a new kid. Because of social aggression, the association between a mother and kid can be critical to kid survival during winter (Chadwick 1977). At age two or three, males leave female groups and join male groups or become solitary, while females typically stay with groups (Brandborg 1955, Wigal and Coggins 1982, Chadwick 1983). Both sexes are capable of dispersing long distances and often will at young ages (Chadwick 1973, Stevens 1983, Hayden 1989, Varley 1995). The greatest factor in natural mortality of mountain goats appears to be winter severity and, in particular, snow depths (Adams and Bailey 1982, Wigal and Coggins 1982, Swenson 1985). Snow depth and snow morphology are often the underlying factors in the causes of death in mountain goats. Causes of death include the availability of winter forage and its effect on body condition (Brandborg 1955, Edwards 1956, Holroyd 1967); the frequency of intraspecific interactions and the resulting levels of stress (Petocz 1972, Chadwick 1977, Kuck 1977, Smith 1977, Foster and Rahs 1982); the susceptibility to accidents, including avalanches and falls (Holroyd 1967, Chadwick 1983, Smith 1984); the susceptibility to disease and parasites (Wigal and Coggins 1982); and the susceptibility to predation (Brandborg 1955, Holroyd 1967, Foster and Rahs 1982). Of all natural causes, accidents related to avalanches; rock, snow, and ice fall; and precipitous falls appear to account for most natural deaths (Brandborg 1955, Holroyd 1967, Foster and Rahs 1982, Wigal and Coggins 1982, Chadwick 1983, Smith 1984). HABITAT Throughout their range, mountain goats inhabit steep, rocky terrain during all seasons of the year. No other feature of preferred habitat is more apparent than the rugged inclines to which goats are adapted. They are often found on slopes between 20 and 60 degrees with little vegetative cover (Smith 1977, Varley 1995). They use cliff ledges for all activities including resting, feeding, and playing (Chadwick 1973, McFetridge 1977). They also use the slide-rock, talus, and turf meadows adjacent to ledges, though they rarely stray far from the safety of cliff habitat (Saunders 1955, McFetridge 1977, Varley 1995). Goats typically migrate between summer and winter ranges each fall and spring (Brandborg 1955, Holroyd 1967, Kuck 1977, Smith 1977, Wigal and Coggins 1982). These migrations are often short-distance elevational shifts to adjacent areas, versus the lengthy migrations to distantly separated ranges known to occur with mountain sheep and elk (Holroyd 1967, Chadwick 1973, Varley 1995). The use of transitional ranges between summer and winter ranges is atypical (Kuck 1977). In the Rocky Mountains, summer ranges are often high-elevation settings such as the tops of mountain ridges and peaks above timberline (Brandborg 1955, Holroyd 1967, Wigal and Coggins 1982). In the GYA, these areas are typically between 8,500 and 12,000+ feet in elevation. During the summer months, goats use alpine meadows, slide-rock slopes, talus, and cliff ledges and usually avoid timbered areas (Saunders 1955, McFetridge 1977, Thompson 1981, Varley 1995). Goats descend to lower elevations in autumn, often after the first deep snowfall, and use terrain topographically similar to their high-elevation habitats. In some populations, goats remain in high-elevation areas during the winter and feed on very steep and/or windblown slopes and ridges where snow does not accumulate (Brandborg 1955, Saunders 1955, Hebert and Turnbull 1977, Wigal and Coggins 1982), however, most populations have winter ranges distinctly lower in elevation (Brandborg 1955, Chadwick 1973, Kuck 1977, Wigal and Coggins 1982). Winter habitats can be below timberline, varying in elevation depending upon local topography, though the particular areas in use for non-coastal populations tend to be non-forested areas or open-canopied forests (Gilbert and Raedeke 1992). The principal factors in mountain goat winter range habitat selection seem to be close proximity to cliff habitats and low snow accumulations (Brandborg 1955, Smith 1977, Smith 1994). Thus, the preferred habitats are often steep and rocky, located on south-facing slopes, and exposed to wind and sun (Brandborg 1955, Chadwick 1973, Gilbert and Raedeke 1992, Smith 1994, Varley 1995). Brandborg (1955) noted that goats in Montana and Idaho used the lowest available winter ranges that provide preferred combinations of broken terrain and vegetative cover. Smith (1977) found wintering goats in the Bitterroot Range used cliff habitats more than 70 percent of the time observed. Kuck (1977) found the selection of winter habitat for goats in the Lemhi Mountains of Idaho was determined by the physical snow-shedding characteristics of an area rather than the forage types present. Wintering goats show strong affinity for local sites where they restrict their movements dramatically in comparison with summer. The resulting distribution is often confined to critically small islands of habitat (Kuck 1977). In the Bitterroot Range, 36 goats occupied a linear distance of 3 miles throughout the winter (Smith 1977). Similarly, 17 wintering goats used 8.6 acres in the Swan Range of northern Montana (Chadwick 1973). In very severe winters, goats continue descending to lower elevations (Rideout 1977) or ascend to windswept ridges or mountain tops (Hjeljord 1973). Various winter ranges in the GYA have been described. Peck (1972) reported goats using the Spanish Peaks area of the Madison Range moved to lower elevation winter ranges in Jack Creek and the Beartrap Canyon of the Madison River. Similarly, goats on the Beartooth Plateau are known to descend into the rocky canyons of drainages on the eastern front, including the Clarks Fork Canyon in Wyoming. There, they may be found as low as 5,000 feet in elevation. Mountain goats in the Crazy Mountains are thought to stay close to alpine areas using wind-swept ridges and cliffs (Lentfer 1955; T. Lemke, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, personal communication). In the Absaroka Range, goats are thought to descend to low, south-facing slopes and cliffs adjacent to summer ranges (T. Lemke, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, personal communication; Varley 1995). One area of the Boulder River Canyon, which had steep semiforested rock outcrops, was used by goats from the Absarokas in 1994 (Varley 1995). HUMAN ACTIVITIES Mountain goats are one of the least understood of all big game mammal species in North America (Eastman 1977, Chadwick 1983). Management has principally focused on the need for better population information and methods for setting harvest quotas (Brandborg 1955, Eastman 1977, Wigal and Coggins 1982). Eastman (1977) assessed research needs for goats in the U.S. and Canada and found non-hunting impacts resulting from human disturbance ranked within the top third among management priorities, though very little had been done on the subject. Some human disturbances have been shown to alter goat behavior, and disturbance can affect physiology, distribution, habitat use, fecundity, and, ultimately, population health (Penner 1988). However, there is little known about winter recreation disturbances and their effects on mountain goats. Throughout North America, some goat populations have been adversely affected by human developments, including logging (Chadwick 1973, Hebert and Turnbull 1977, Smith and Raedeke 1982) and mineral, coal, gas, and oil development (Hebert and Turnbull 1977, Pendergast and Bindernagel 1977, Smith 1982, Joslin 1986). These cases have predictive value for estimating the general effects of continual disturbance through human activities. In these cases, a decline in goat population levels occurred when development in or near goat habitats took place. The mechanisms for population declines were not clear but seem to be related to improved access for hunting or poaching (Chadwick 1973, Foster 1977, Hebert and Turnbull 1977, Smith and Raedeke 1982, Smith 1994), abandonment of habitat due to alterations or disturbance (Chadwick 1973, Hebert and Turnbull 1977, Pendergast and Bindernagel 1977), or continual stress as a result of human presence (Joslin 1986). Controlling human access has been continually suggested as the management tool that will have the greatest effects on the long-term health of mountain goat populations (Chadwick 1973, 1983; Eastman 1977, Hebert and Turnbull 1977, McFetridge 1977, Wigal and Coggins 1982, Joslin 1986, Haynes 1992). Joslin (1986) states, ?Motorized access in or near mountain goat habitat is probably the single biggest threat to goat herds throughout North America.? Several authors have looked at the effects of human disturbance on goats in the form of proximity to people, traffic, and noise during summer (Holroyd 1967, Singer 1978, Thompson 1980, Singer and Doherty 1985, Pedevillano and Wright 1987). Goats have shown tolerance, and, in cases without harvest or harassment, the ability to readily habituate to humans on foot as well as road traffic (Bansner 1978, Stevens 1983, Singer and Doherty 1985, Pedevillano and Wright 1987, Penner 1988). Penner (1988) writes, ?Goats are adaptable and can habituate to potentially adverse stimuli if they are gradually acclimatized and negative associations are avoided.? This possibility is best achieved when stimuli sources are localized and highly predictable (Penner 1988, Singer and Doherty 1985). Sudden, loud noises, however, from traffic (Singer 1978, Singer and Doherty 1985, Pedevillano and Wright 1987), blasting or drills (Singer and Doherty 1985, Penner 1988), and helicopters (Penner 1988, Coote 1996) still elicited extreme alarm responses from goats that have been habituated to human presence. Many observers have found that goats that are approached on foot are either mildly evasive, tolerant, or curious. Consequently, these observers believe that most human foot traffic is of minimal impact to goats (Brandborg 1955, Holroyd 1967, Thompson 1980, Pedevillano and Wright 1987). Although quite rare, confrontations with aggressive goats have been reported when humans and goats come into close quarters (Holroyd 1967, Chadwick 1983). Goats react by stamping their front feet, pawing the ground, and arching their necks when threatened by humans (Holroyd 1967). Quick, powerful movements coupled with very sharp horns can cause serious injury to humans in the course of handling goats. Anecdotal reports of goats on the Beartooth Plateau attest to the occasional aggressive nature of goats around humans. Driven by hunger for minerals, these goats have, on occasion, come into human camps knocking down tents and equipment. Some biologists in the GYA have expressed concern about potential conflicts between humans and goats, but there are no documented, actual, ongoing conflicts. Outside the GYA on the Sawtooth National Forest and Sawtooth National Recreation Area in Idaho, special management restrictions on winter recreation, including foot, snow machine, and helicopter travel, have been established. Mitigation measures, including area restrictions, closures, and other regulations, were enacted to minimize the potential for disturbances to wintering goat populations (Hamilton et al. 1996, USFS 1997). POTENTIAL EFFECTS Human activities are capable of causing disturbances detrimental to mountain goat populations. While the cases that exist do not specifically refer to winter recreation, they do demonstrate the process by which human impact may alter goat behavior, habitat use, and stress levels potentially leading to population declines. Because of low productivity and narrow habitat requirements, goats can be considered a fragile wildlife resource, particularly while on winter ranges (Smith 1982, Chadwick 1983, Smith 1984, Wigal and Coggins 1988). Because of the remote and rugged nature of goat wintering habitats, recreational use of such areas is unlikely. However, any use could potentially be detrimental. Abandonment of habitats or increased stress related to frequent encounters could be elicited through recreational activities including snowmobiling, skiing (downhill, cross-country, or telemark skiing accessed by helicopter or from the ground), snow-boarding, and ice-climbing. Because mountain goats are sensitive to loud noises, snowmobiles and helicopters could affect their behavior depending upon the proximity and duration of the disturbance (Singer and Doherty 1985, Pedevillano and Wright 1987, C?t? 1996). In the GYA, most occupied goat winter range occurs within established national wilderness areas where motorized travel is strictly prohibited. In assessing management considerations, the Idaho Department of Fish and Game identified use of helicopters for skiing as an activity potentially detrimental to goats. Where the two are in conflict, goats require protection (Idaho Department of Fish and Game 1990). Nonmotorized users in close proximity to wintering goats may also affect goats in terms of the energy expended to avoid these users. Depending upon winter severity, energy expended avoiding recreationists could be costly and, therefore, cause harm to individuals and, in the long-term, to populations. Biologists have expressed concerns about an increasing amount of ice-climbing taking place in mountain goat habitats. The extent of this potential disturbance is unknown. Ice climbing may need to be monitored as a potential source of disturbance in particular situations, although, because it is a highly localized activity lacking loud noises or other disturbance factors, longterm effects would likely be minimal. Although accounts of goats injuring humans exist, goats generally do not pose a safety hazard to humans. Only in unusual cases involving habituated goats in frequent, close proximity to humans would such a concern exist. Mountain goats in the GYA are particularly affected by human use of the following Potential Opportunity Areas: (6) Backcountry motorized areas (8) Nonmotorized routes (9) Backcountry nonmotorized areas (12) Low-snow recreation areas Given the susceptibility of mountain goats to human disturbance, particularly during the months of winter, there is potential for negative impacts to goats as a result of winter recreational activities. However, there are no known cases of conflict in the GYA at this time. Seemingly, conflicts are being avoided between winter recreationists and mountain goats. Possible explanations for this conclusion include: 1. Conflicts may be occurring that are unknown to officials. It would be likely that any major conflicts would not escape attention, though the occasional, minor conflict could go unreported for some time. Minor conflicts may occur in association with wilderness trespasses and, thus, remain unreported or undetected. In most cases, it appears that wilderness designation and area use limitations have adequately protected mountain goat habitats from motorized-related disturbances in the GYA. 2. Because mountain goat winter range is inaccessible and precipitous, goats and recreationists are not often coming into conflict. For recreation, humans tend not to seek the combination of rocky, rugged terrain, and low-snow conditions required by mountain goats. Rather, snowmobilers and skiers prefer deep snow conditions, which are typically avoided by goats. The discrepancy in site preferences appears to be a factor in mutual avoidance by goats and humans during winter. While ice climbing does occur in goat winter range habitats, the effects of this form of recreation are unknown. Ice climbing is localized at specific sites and is predictable in terms of repeated use. These are two characteristics that goats seem to require for tolerance or habituation; therefore, ice climbing may not pose a significant threat to goats. MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES The impacts of human disturbance on goat populations have been clearly demonstrated in numerous cases; however, these cases conspicuously lack a clear case demonstrating the effects of recreation on goats during winter. Based on no known cases of conflict in the GYA, no immediate management recommendations are offered. If, however, cases of conflict occur in the future, restrictions on human use should be implemented to protect mountain goats. Such restrictions might include area closures, a permitting system that would regulate visitor numbers, and criteria for the use of helicopters in the area of mountain goat winter range. A general lack of information on the winter habits and resource requirements for mountain goats may require further ecological studies. It would be useful to more specifically locate mountain goat winter ranges in the GYA and compare them with backcountry recreation use areas. Overlap can then be examined so that potential areas for conflict can be identified. If a significant overlap exists or conflict arises, management options can be considered and implemented. LITERATURE CITED Adams, L. A., and J. A. Bailey. 1982. The population dynamics of mountain goats in the Sawatch Range, Colorado. Journal of Wildlife Management 46:1003?1009. Bansner, U. 1978. Mountain goat?human interactions in the Sperry-Gunsight area of Glacier National Park. Final report, University of Montana. Brandborg, S. M. 1955. Life history and management of the mountain goat in Idaho. Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Bulletin Number 2. Chadwick, D. H. 1973. Mountain goat ecology-logging relationships in the Bunker Creek Drainage of Western Montana. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. ???. 1977. The influence of mountain goat social relationships on population size and distribution. Pages 74?91 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. ???. 1983. A beast the color of winter. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, California, USA. C?t?, S. D. 1996. Mountain goat responses to helicopter disturbance. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24(4):681?685. Eastman, D. S. 1977. Research needs for mountain goat management. Pages 160? 168 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Edwards, R. Y. 1956. Snow depth and ungulate abundance. Journal of Wildlife Management 20(2):159?168. Festa-Bianchet, M., M. Urquhart, and K. G. Smith. 1994. Mountain goat recruitment: kid production and survival to breeding age. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72:22? 27. Foss, A. J. 1962. A study of the Rocky Mountain goat in Montana. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA. Foster, B. R. 1977. Historical patterns of mountain goat harvest in British Columbia. Pages 147?159 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. ???, and E. Y. Rahs. 1982. Implications of maternal separation on overwinter survival of mountain goat kids. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 3:351?363. Gilbert, B. A., and K. J. Raedeke. 1992. Winter habitat selection of mountain goats in the North Tolt and Mine Creek drainages of the North Central Cascades. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 8:305?324. Hamilton, S., J. Carlisle, and R. Garwood. 1996. Human effects on mountain goats in the Sawtooth National Forest. Sawtooth National Recreation Area. Headquarters, Star Route, Ketchum, Idaho, USA. Hayden, J. A. 1984. Introduced mountain goats in the Snake River Range, Idaho: characteristics of vigorous population growth. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 4:94?119. ???. 1989. Status and dynamics of mountain goats in the Snake River Range. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, USA. Haynes, L. A. 1992. Mountain goat habitat of Wyoming?s Beartooth Plateau: implications for management. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 8:325?339. Hebert, D. H., and W. G. Turnbull. 1977. A description of southern interior and coastal mountain goat ecotypes in British Columbia. Pages 126?146 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Hjeljord, O. G. 1973. Mountain goat forage and habitat preference in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 37:353?362. Holroyd, J. C. 1967. Observations of Rocky Mountain goats on Mount Wardle, Kootenay National Park, British Columbia. Canadian Field Naturalist 81(1):1?22. Houston, D. B., and V. Stevens. 1988. Resource limitation in mountain goats: a test by experimental cropping. Canadian Journal of Zoology 66:228?238. Idaho Department of Fish and Game. 1990. Mountain goat management plan, 1991? 1995. Boise, Idaho, USA. Johnson, R. L. 1977. Distribution, abundance, and management status of mountain goats in North America. Pages 1?7 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Joslin, G. 1986. Mountain goat population changes in relation to energy exploration along Montana?s Rocky Mountain Front. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 5:253?271. Kuck, L. 1977. The impacts of hunting on Idaho?s Pahsimeroi mountain goat herd. Pages 114?125 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Laundr?, J. W. 1990. The status, distribution, and management of mountain goats in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. Lemke, T. 1996. Pittman-Robinson Project Report Southwest Montane Eco-Region Survey and Inventory Project (Mountain Goats). Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks report, Montana, USA. Lentfer, J. W. 1955. A two-year study of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Crazy Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 19:417?429. McFetridge, R. J. 1977. Strategy of resource use by mountain goat nursery groups. Pages 169?173 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Montana Department of Fish and Game. 1976. Montana big game trapping and transplant record 1910?1975. Unpublished report. Peck, S. V. 1972. The ecology of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Spanish Peaks area of southwestern Montana. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA. Pedevillano, C., and R. G. Wright. 1987. The influence of visitors on mountain goat activities in Glacier National Park, Montana. Biological Conservation 39:1?11. Pendergast, B., and J. Bindernagel. 1977. The impact of exploration of coal on mountain goats in northeastern British Columbia. Pages 64?68 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Penner, D. F. 1988. Behavioral response and habituation of mountain goats in relation to petroleum exploration at Pinto Creek, Alberta. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 6:141?158. Petocz, R. G. 1972. The effect of snow cover on the social behavior of bighorn rams and mountain goats. Canadian Journal of Zoology 51:987?993. Rideout, C. B. 1977. Mountain goat home ranges in the Sapphire Mountains of Montana. Pages 201?211 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Saunders, J. K. 1955. Food habits and range use of the Rocky Mountain goat in the Crazy Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 19:429?437. Singer, F. J. 1978. Behavior of mountain goats in relation to U.S. Highway 2, Glacier National Park, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 42(3)591?597. ???, and J. L. Doherty. 1985. Managing mountain goats at a highway crossing. Wildlife Society Bulletin 13:469?477. Smith, B. L. 1977. Influence of snow conditions on winter distribution, habitat use, and group size of mountain goats. Pages 174?189 in W. Samuel and W. G. Macgregor, editors. Proceedings of First International Mountain Goat Symposium, Kalispell, Montana. British Columbia Ministry of Recreation and Conservation, Canada. Smith, C. A. 1984. Evaluation and management implications of long-term trends in coastal mountain goat populations in southeast Alaska. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 4:395?424. ???. 1994. Evaluation of a multivariate model of mountain goat winter habitat selection. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 9:159?165. ???, and K. J. Raedeke. 1982. Group size and movements of a dispersed, low density goat population with comments on inbreeding and human impact. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 3:54?67. Smith, K. G. 1982. Winter studies of forestdwelling mountain goats of Pinto Creek, Alberta. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 3:374?390. Stevens, V. 1983. The dynamics of dispersal in an introduced mountain goat population. Dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA. Swenson, J. E. 1985. Compensatory reproduction in an introduced mountain goat population in the Absaroka Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:837?843. Thompson, M. J. 1981. Mountain goat distribution, population characteristics and habitat use in the Sawtooth Range, Montana. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA. Thompson, R. W. 1980. Population dynamics, habitat utilization, recreational impacts, and trapping of introduced Rocky Mountain goats in the Eagle?s Nest Wilderness area, Colorado. Biennial Symposium of the Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council 2:459?464. USFS (U.S. Forest Service). 1997. Environmental assessment for outfitted and guided backcountry helicopter skiing on the Sawtooth National Forest. U.S. Forest Service, Sawtooth National Forest, Ketchum, Idaho, USA. Varley, N. 1995. The ecology of mountain goats in the Absaroka Range, south-central Montana. Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA. Wigal, R. A., and V. L. Coggins. 1982. Mountain goat. Pages 1008?1020 in J. A. Chapman and G. A. Feldhamer, editors. Wild mammals of North America: biology, management, and economics. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA. PREPARED BY: Nathan Varley, Wildlife Biologist, Gardiner, Montana, USA. REVIEWED BY: Tom Lemke, Ph.D., Wildlife Biologist, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Livingston, Montana, USA. Dan Tyers, Wildlife Biologist, U. S. Forest Service, Gallatin National Forest, Gardiner, Montana, USA. John Varley, Director of the Yellowstone Center for Resources, National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. PRESENTED AT: Northern Bighorn Sheep and Mountain Goat Biennial Symposium, April 1996, Whitefish, Montana, USA.

Keywords: Animal, Mammal, Wildlife, Management, Human activity, Population, Goat, Mountain goat, Oreamnos americanus, Population, Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, Distribution, Habitat, Hunting, Mortality, Breeding, Food, forage, disease, predation, migration, Idaho, Oil and gas drilling, poaching, bibliography